Design of the hull
The shape of a ship hull is determined by many competing influences. For ease of construction, it should be a rectangular box; for adequate transverse stability, it must be wide; for adequate strength as a beam being bent in a longitudinal plane, it must be deep. All these factors influence the shape of a hull, but often the primary factor is the dynamic interaction of the hull with the water. The interactions that govern the resistance of the hull to steady forward motion—a resistancethat determines the choice of propulsive power—usually demand the greatest attention from the naval architect.
Resistance to steady forward motion has four components: (1) friction between the water and the hull surfaces, (2) energyexpended in creating the wave system caused by the hull, (3) energy put into eddies shed by the hull and its appendages (e.g., the rudder), and (4) resistance by the air to above-water parts of the ship.
Frictional resistance is proportional to the product of water density, area of contact with the water, square of water speed relative to the ship, and a friction coefficient. This resistance can be minimized by reducing the area of a hull’s wetted surface, but usually very little can be accomplished in the face of many other demands on hull size and shape. A smooth surface is an obvious factor in reducing friction, but a surface that is smoother than ordinary painted steel has a benefit that is trivial compared to its cost. The friction coefficient is largely a function of the Reynolds number (the product of water density times ship speed times ship length, divided by water viscosity); it is not controllable by a designer since water density and viscosity are beyond control and ship length and speed are almost inevitably dictated by other considerations. The friction coefficient was the subject of intense research, especially during the first half of the 20th century, but since that time most ship designers have employed values standardized by the International Towing Tank Conference.
Wave making and eddy-making resistance components are often lumped into a single “residuary resistance,” especially when resistance measurements are extrapolated from model testing. Wave making is usually by far the larger component of residuary resistance; it is therefore given more attention in research and in the designing of a hull. Indeed, wave making increases so rapidly as ship speed increases that it eventually requires more power to overcome than is practicable to build into a ship. For a ship of conventional type, it is virtually impossible to operate at a speed-to-length ratio (speed in nautical miles per hour, divided by the square root of the waterline length in feet) higher than approximately 1.3. Beyond that realm even a trivial increase in speed requires a virtually infinite increase in power in order to fulfill the energy demand of the wave system. Small craft can escape this limitation by planing, but the amount of power required for the transition to a planing mode is beyond practicality for conventional ships.
A significant feature of waves generated by the passage of a ship is that they travel at the same speed as the ship and that their speed (like that of surface waves in general) is proportional to the square root of their length. In consequence, when a ship is running at a speed-to-length ratio of 1.0, its waterline length is the same as the crest-to-crest length of its wave pattern, in effect putting it into a hole of its own making. As more power is applied, the hole becomes deeper until any further increase in speed simply poses the impossible task of climbing out of the hole.
Another significant feature of ship-generated waves is their origin at different parts of the hull. A bow wave and a stern wave are always present, and, if the fore and after parts of the hull fair into a straight mid-body with distinct shoulders, then these shoulders also will produce waves. It may well happen that the crests of waves from one source will coincide with the troughs of another; the resulting cancellation will lessen the wave-making component of resistance. A major objective of ship hydrodynamicists is to design hull forms that maximize this benefit. One evident result of their efforts is the underwater bulb often attached to the bows of ships. The purpose of the bulb is to produce a wave that will tend to cancel the ordinary bow wave.
Eddy making by appendages such as rudders and the brackets that support propeller shafts is usually a minor contributor to a hull’s resistance to forward motion. It is minimized by giving the appendages airfoil shape and by orienting them, if possible, so that approaching water will have a low angle of attack.
Aerodynamic resistance usually receives much less attention in ship design than hydrodynamic resistance. The aerodynamic contribution to total resistance is small under most circumstances. On occasions when it is not small, as with an exceptionally strong wind from ahead, the resulting waves are likely to require a voluntary reduction in ship speed. The slowing caused by the wind is thus likely to pass unnoticed. The rounding and sloping of deckhouse surfaces is about the only attempt made to design for minimal air resistance.
